What qualitative research is

• Qualitative research studies meaning, experience and context using words, not numbers.
• It is often inductive (theory emerges from data) and naturalistic.
• Strengths: rich, in-depth, high in ecological validity. Limitations: harder to replicate and generalise, and open to researcher subjectivity.

Interviews and focus groups

• Structured interview — fixed questions (easy to compare, less depth).
• Semi-structured interview — a flexible guide with follow-up probes (the most common qualitative interview).
• Unstructured interview — free-flowing conversation (rich but hard to analyse).
• Focus group — a facilitated group discussion; useful for shared views but risks conformity.

Which is right?

Observational methods

• Naturalistic vs controlled observation.
• Participant (the researcher joins the group) vs non-participant.
• Covert (hidden) vs overt (known) — covert reduces reactivity but raises ethical issues.
• Example: Festinger et al. (When Prophecy Fails) used covert participant observation of a doomsday group.

Which is right?

Case studies

A case study is an in-depth investigation of a single person, group or event, usually combining several methods (method triangulation).

• Example: the case study of patient HM (Milner) gave rich insight into memory.
• Strengths: depth, and the ability to study rare cases.
• Limitations: hard to generalise from one case; risk of researcher bias.

Which is right?

Sampling in qualitative research

• Purposive sampling — participants chosen because they fit the research aim (the most common qualitative approach).
• Snowball sampling — participants refer others (useful for hard-to-reach groups).
• Convenience sampling — whoever is available.

Samples are usually small; researchers may continue until theoretical saturation (no new themes emerge).

Which is right?

Credibility and trustworthiness

Instead of "validity", qualitative researchers speak of credibility and trustworthiness, improved by:

• Triangulation — checking findings across multiple methods, data sources, researchers or theories.
• Reflexivity — the researcher reflects on how their own background and role shape the research (personal and epistemological).
• Member checking and rich, thick description.

Which is right?

Generalisation in qualitative research

Qualitative findings can be generalised in different ways:

• Representational generalisation — to the wider population.
• Inferential generalisation / transferability — to other similar contexts, judged by the reader using rich description.
• Theoretical generalisation — to wider theory or concepts.

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Match each concept to its definition

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Ethics in qualitative research

• Informed consent — harder in covert or naturalistic settings.
• Confidentiality and anonymity — vital when data are rich and identifying.
• Sensitivity — interviews often explore personal or distressing topics; researchers must manage the researcher–participant relationship and protect from harm.

The big ideas to know

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