What happened when the Prophet died?

The Prophet (pbuh) died in Madinah in 632 CE. He was the last prophet — so no one could replace him as a prophet. But the community still needed leadership.

The Arabic word khalifah (caliph) means successor or deputy. The first four caliphs are called by Sunni Muslims al-Khulafa al-Rashidun — the Rightly Guided Caliphs — because they were close companions of the Prophet who tried to govern by his example.

Crucial distinction: a caliph is a political and religious leader, not a prophet. Muslims do not believe revelation continued after Muhammad (pbuh).

What is a caliph?

Abu Bakr (632–634 CE)

Abu Bakr was among the first to accept Islam, and was the Prophet's close companion and father-in-law.

• Sunni Muslims hold that the community chose him as the first caliph.
• He held the community together when several tribes tried to break away after the Prophet's death.
• He began the work of gathering the Qurʾan, which had been memorised by many and written on scattered materials.

ʿUthman

ʿUmar ibn al-Khattab (634–644 CE)

ʿUmar is remembered for administration and for justice.

• Under him Muslim rule expanded rapidly beyond Arabia.
• He organised the state: a treasury, a system of provinces and governors, and the Hijri calendar dated from the hijrah.
• Muslim tradition holds him up as a model of simple living and accountability, willing to be challenged by ordinary people.

Sunni, Shiʿah, or shared?

Tap a statement, then tap where it belongs. Be careful — some beliefs are held by both.

ʿUthman ibn ʿAffan (644–656 CE)

ʿUthman, a son-in-law of the Prophet, is above all associated with the Qurʾan.

• As Islam spread, differences in recitation began to appear. ʿUthman had an authorised written text prepared and copies sent to the main centres.
• Muslims believe this is why the Qurʾan has been preserved unchanged — a point Muslims often make when comparing it with other scriptures.

His caliphate ended in unrest and he was killed — the beginning of a period of serious conflict within the community.

The Sunni view

ʿAli ibn Abi Talib (656–661 CE)

ʿAli was the Prophet's cousin and son-in-law, married to his daughter Fatimah, and one of the earliest Muslims.

• He became caliph at a time of civil war and was himself killed.
• Sunni Muslims honour him as the fourth Rightly Guided Caliph.
• Shiʿah Muslims believe he should have been the first leader, and that leadership belonged by right to the Prophet's family.

The Shiʿah view

The Sunni view

The syllabus asks for Sunni views in their own terms.

• The Prophet did not appoint a successor, so the community was right to choose: Abu Bakr, then ʿUmar, then ʿUthman, then ʿAli.
• Authority rests on the Qurʾan and the Sunnah, interpreted by scholars — the word 'Sunni' comes from Sunnah.
• All four caliphs are honoured as rightly guided.

Which caliph?

Tap a term on the left, then its meaning on the right.

The Shiʿah view

The syllabus equally asks for Shiʿah views.

• Leadership belonged to ʿAli and, after him, to Imams descended from the Prophet through ʿAli and Fatimah.
• Many Shiʿah Muslims — the largest group — believe in Twelve Imams, the last of whom is hidden and will return.
• Shiʿah belief is expressed in the five roots of Usul ad-Din: tawhid, ʿadl (divine justice), risalah, imamah (the authority of the Imams) and miʿad (the Day of Resurrection).

Shiʿah Muslims especially remember the death of Husayn, ʿAli's son, at Karbala — a defining event of faithfulness under injustice.

Common ground

What Sunni and Shiʿah Muslims share

Examiners reward candidates who can see the size of the common ground.

• The same Qurʾan.
• Belief in the oneness of Allah (tawhid) and in Muhammad (pbuh) as the final prophet.
• The Five Pillars — though details of practice can differ (for example, Shiʿah Muslims may combine some of the five daily prayers).
• The same festivals of ʿId al-Fitr and ʿId al-Adha.

Writing about this well

Discussing the split fairly

An 0490 evaluation question might be: 'The disagreement over succession was the most important event in Islamic history.' Discuss.

• Yes — it shaped two enduring traditions with different structures of authority, and continues to matter politically today.
• No — the revelation of the Qurʾan and the mission of the Prophet are more fundamental; without them there is nothing to lead.
• Be careful — do not describe either tradition as a 'sect' or as mistaken. Set out each view with the reasons its believers give, then judge.

The big ideas to know

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