The ontological argument

The ontological argument reasons from the concept of God to God's existence — a purely a priori argument.

• Anselm argued that God is 'that than which nothing greater can be conceived'; such a being must exist in reality, not merely in the mind;
• Descartes reformulated it: existence is a perfection belonging to the concept of a supremely perfect being; and
• candidates study the relationship between reason and faith, later reformulations, and the critique of the argument.

The cosmological argument

The cosmological argument reasons from the universe to a first cause. Its classic form is the Three Ways of Aquinas (motion, cause and contingency), which reject an infinite regress and conclude to a necessary being.

Candidates evaluate:

• the relevance of causality;
• the idea of the universe as a 'brute fact' needing no explanation; and
• the atheist view.

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The problem of evil and the theodicies

If God is all-powerful and all-good, why is there evil? Candidates distinguish moral evil (from human choices) and natural evil (earthquakes, disease). A theodicy defends God's justice in the face of evil:

• the Augustinian theodicy — evil as a privation, entering through the Fall and free will;
• the Irenaean theodicy — evil as necessary for 'soul-making'; and
• process theodicy — a God whose power is limited.

Theodicies and critique

Modern developments and challenges include:

• John Hick's modification of the Irenaean theodicy (the world as a 'vale of soul-making');
• Richard Swinburne's views on natural evil;
• the free will defence; and
• the powerful critiques of Christian solutions in the writings of Camus and Dostoyevsky.

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The problem of miracle

What is a miracle? The specification compares two definitions:

• Aquinas — an event done by God beyond the natural order; and
• David Hume — 'a violation of the laws of nature', which Hume argued it is never reasonable to believe on testimony.

Candidates also study miracle in the Bible, responses to Hume, and the contribution of science.

Which part of the philosophy of religion?

Tap a term, then tap the group it belongs to.

Miracles: coincidence and interpretation

Recent philosophers reinterpret miracle in different ways:

• Holland — a miracle can be a remarkable coincidence interpreted religiously;
• Hick and Wiles — questioning divine intervention; and
• Swinburne — defending the reasonableness of belief in miracles.

Candidates weigh the reasons for belief and non-belief in miracles today.

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Religious experience and its credentials

Finally, the unit turns to religious experience:

• visions and mystical experiences;
• Rudolf Otto's analysis of the numinous — the experience of the holy as awe-inspiring mystery;
• forms of experience in Teresa of Avila and Martin Buber (the 'I–Thou' encounter); and
• whether experience is proof for God, its verification, natural explanations, and Hick's religious pluralism.

Philosopher and argument

Match each philosopher to the argument or idea they are known for.

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The big ideas to know

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